Nationalism in India

CBSE Notes For Class 10

Class 10 History NotesChapter 2 NationaIism in India

Indian nationalism, developed as a concept during the Indian independence movement fought against the colonial British Raj. In this chapter, students will get to know the story from the 1920s and study about the nonCooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. Students will also get to explore how Congress sought to develop the national movement, how different social groups participated in the movement, and how nationalism captured the imagination of people. 

The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

In India, the growth of modern nationalism is connected to the anti-colonial movement. Due to colonialism, many different groups shared bonds together, which were forged by the Congress under Mahatma Gandhi.

The war created a new economic and political situation in the years after 1919. Income tax introduced and the prices of custom duties were doubled between 1913 and 1918, which led to a very difficult life for common people. In 1918-19 crops failed in India, resulting in shortage of food accompanied by an influenza epidemic. At this stage, a new leader appeared and suggested a new mode of struggle.

The Idea of Satyagraha

In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa and started the movement Satyagraha. Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for truth. According to Mahatma Gandhi, people can win a battle with non-violence which will unite all Indians. In 1917, he travelled to Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system. In the same year, he organised satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organise a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers.

The Rowlatt Act

In 1919, Mahatma Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act. The Act gives the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. The British government decided to clamp down on nationalists by witnessing the outrage of the people. On April 10th, police in Amritsar fired on a peaceful procession, which provoked widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

On 13th April, the Jallianwala Bagh incident took place. A large crowd gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh where a few people came to protest against the government’s new repressive measures, while some came to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. General Dyer blocked all the exit points and opened fire on the crowd killing hundreds. After the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, people became furious and went on strikes, clashes with police and attacks on government buildings. Mahatma Gandhi had to call off the movement as it was turning into a violent war.

Mahatma Gandhi then took up the Khilafat issue by bringing Hindus and Muslims together. The First World War ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. In March 1919, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay. In September 1920, Mahatma Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

Why Non-cooperation?

According to Mahatma Gandhi, British rule was established in India with the cooperation of Indians. Non-cooperation movement is proposed in stages. It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools and foreign goods. After many hurdles and campaigning between the supporters and opponents of the movement, finally, in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation Movement was adopted.

Differing Strands within the Movement

In January 1921, the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began. In this movement, various social groups participated, but the term meant different things to different people.

The Movement in the Towns

The middle-class started the movement and thousands of students, teachers, headmasters left government-controlled schools and colleges, lawyers gave up their legal practices. In the economic front, the effects of non-cooperation were more dramatic. The production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up when people started boycotting foreign goods. However, this movement slowed down due to a variety of reasons such as Khadi clothes are expensive, less Indian institutions for students and teachers to choose from, so they went back to government schools and lawyers joined back government courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside

The Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside where peasants and tribals were developing in different parts of India. The peasant movement started against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents and a variety of other cesses. It demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar and social boycott of oppressive landlords.

Jawaharlal Nehru in June 1920, started going around the villages in Awadh to understand their grievances. In October, he along with few others set up the Oudh Kisan Sabha and within a month 300 branches had been set up. In 1921, the peasant movement spread and the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted and grain boards were taken over.

In the early 1920s, a militant guerrilla movement started spreading in the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh. The government started closing down forest areas due to which their livelihood was affected. Finally, the hill people revolted, which was led by Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed that he had a variety of special powers.

Swaraj in the Plantations

For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant right to move freely in and out and retaining a link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission. After they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers left the plantations and headed home. But, unfortunately, they never reached their destination and were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.

Towards Civil Disobedience

In February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn because Mahatma Gandhi felt that it was turning violent. Some of the leaders wanted to participate in elections to the provincial councils. Swaraj Party was formed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru. In the late 1920s Indian politics again shaped because of two factors. The first effect was the worldwide economic depression and the second effect was the falling agricultural prices. The Statutory Commission was set up to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. In 1928, Simon Commission arrived in India and it was greeted by the slogan ‘Go back Simon’. In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement

On 31 January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. Among the demands, the most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax which is consumed by the rich and the poor. The demands needed to be fulfilled by 11 March or else Congress would start a civil disobedience campaign. The famous salt march was started by Mahatma Gandhi accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. On 6 April he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling seawater. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The movement spread across the world and salt law was broken in different parts of the country. Foreign cloth was boycotted, peasants refused to pay revenue and in many places, forest law was violated. In April 1930, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was arrested. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested a month later which led to attacks to all structures that symbolised British rule. By witnessing the horrific situation, Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the movement and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931. Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Round Table Conference in London. When the conference broke down, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India disappointed and relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. It continued for almost a year, but by 1934 it lost its  momentum.

How Participants saw the Movement

The Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement. They became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. But they were deeply disappointed when the movement was called off in 1931. So when the movement was restarted in 1932, many of them refused to participate. The poorer peasants joined a variety of radical movements, often led by Socialists and Communists.

To organise business interests, the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927 was formed. The industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement when it was first launched. Some of the industrial workers did participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1930 and 1932 railway workers and dock workers were on strike.

Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was the large-scale participation of women. But, for a long time, Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority within the organisation.

The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Dalits, addressed as untouchables were not moved by the concept of Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi used to call them harijans or the children of God, without whom swaraj could not be achieved. He organised satyagraha for the untouchables but they were keen on a different political solution to the problems of the community. They demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and a separate electorate.

Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for Dalits. The Poona Pact of September 1932, gave the Depressed Classes (later to be known as the Scheduled Castes) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils. After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, Muslims felt alienated from the Congress due to which the relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces. Nevertheless, the hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation. History and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played a part in the making of nationalism. Finally, in the twentieth century, the identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay created the image and in the 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland.

Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata portrayed as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather folk songs and legends. During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was designed which had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. By 1921, Gandhiji designed the Swaraj flag, a tricolour (red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre, representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help.

Conclusion

In the first half of the twentieth century, various groups and classes of Indians came together for the struggle of independence. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi attempted to resolve differences and ensure that the demands of one group did not alienate another. In other words, what was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.

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Age of industrialization

Age of industrialization

Before the Industrial Revolution

Proto-industrialisation is referred to the phase which existed even before factories began in England and Europe. There was large-scale industrial production for an international market not based on factories. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from Europe moved to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, requesting them to produce for an international market. Merchants were restricted to expand their production within towns because rulers granted different guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products. In the countryside, poor peasants and artisans eagerly agreed so that they could remain in the countryside and continue to cultivate their small plots. The Proto-industrial system was thus part of a network of commercial exchanges controlled by merchants.

The Coming Up of the Factory

In the 1730s the earliest factories in England were set up, but only in the late eighteenth century, the number of factories multiplied. Cotton was the first symbol of the new era and its production boomed in the late nineteenth century. Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill where costly machines were set up and all the processes were brought together under one roof and management.

The Pace of Industrial Change

First: In Britain, the most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. Cotton was the leading sector in the first phase of industrialisation up to the 1840s, followed by iron and steel industry. Second: The new industries found it difficult to displace traditional industries. Third: The pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal industries, but they did not remain entirely stagnant either. Fourth: technological changes occurred slowly.

James Watt improved the steam engine produced by Newcomen and patented the new engine in 1781. His industrialist friend Mathew Boulton manufactured the new model. Steam engines were not used in any of the other industries until much later in the century.

Hand Labour and Steam Power

There was no shortage of human labour in Victorian Britain. Industrialists had no problem of labour shortage or high wage costs. Instead of machines industrialists required large capital investment. The demand for labour was seasonal in many industries. In all such industries where production fluctuated with the season, industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers for the season.

Life of the Workers

The workers’ lives were affected by the abundance of labour in the market. To get a job, workers should have existing networks of friendship and kin relations in a factory. Till the mid-nineteenth century, it was difficult for workers to find jobs. In the early nineteenth century, wages were increased. The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology. Spinning Jenny was introduced in the woollen industry. After the 1840s, building activity intensified in the cities, opening up greater opportunities for employment. Roads were widened, new railway stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug, drainage and sewers laid, rivers embanked.

Industrialisation in the Colonies

The Age of Indian Textiles

In India, silk and cotton goods dominated the international market in textiles, before the age of machine industries. A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this network of export trade – financing production, carrying goods and supplying exporters. By the 1750s this network, controlled by Indian merchants, was breaking down. The European companies came into power – first securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then the monopoly rights to trade. The shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the growth of colonial power. European companies controlled trade through the new ports and were carried in European ships. Many old trading houses collapsed, and those who wanted to survive had to operate within a network shaped by European trading companies.

Weaver and Manchester

After the 1760s, the consolidation of the East India Company did not initially lead to a decline in textile exports from India. Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s and 1770s, the East India Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for export. After the East India Company established political power, it developed a system of management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods. It was established by following a series of steps.

By eliminating existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establishing more direct control over the weaver.

By preventing Company weavers from dealing with other buyers.

The weavers were granted a loan to buy the raw materials once an order was placed. Weavers who took loans needed to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. Weaving required the labour of the entire family, with children and women all engaged in different stages of the process. Earlier, supply merchants had a very close relationship with weavers, but new gomasthas were outsiders with no social link with the village.

In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers set up looms in other villages where they had some family relation. In other places, weavers along with the village traders revolted, opposing the Company and its officials. Over time many weavers began refusing loans, closing down their workshops and taking to agricultural labour. By the turn of the nineteenth century, cotton weavers faced a new set of problems.

Manchester Comes to India

In 1772, Henry Patullo said that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce since no other nation produced goods of the same quality. But, unfortunately, by the beginning of the nineteenth century, India witnessed a decline in textile exports. In the early nineteenth century, exports of British cotton goods increased dramatically. At the end of the eighteenth century, import of cotton piece-goods was restricted into India. In India cotton weavers faced two problems:

Their export market collapsed

Local market shrank and glutted with Manchester imports.

By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of good quality. Even the raw cotton exports from India increased due to which the price increased. By the end of the nineteenth century, other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories in India began production, flooding the market with machine-goods.

Factories Come Up

In 1854, the first cotton mill in Bombay set up and went into production two years later. By 1862 four more mills were set up and around the same time jute mills came up in Bengal. The first jute mill was set up in 1855 and another one after seven years in 1862. In the 1860s, in north India, the Elgin Mill was started in Kanpur, and a year later the first cotton mill of Ahmedabad was set up. By 1874, the first spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.

made his fortune in the China trade. In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata built huge industrial empires in India. Seth Hukumchand, a Marwari businessman set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917. The opportunities of investments in industries opened up and many of them set up factories.

But due to colonial power, Indians were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods and had to export mostly raw materials and food grains – raw cotton, opium, wheat and indigo – required by the British. Three of the biggest European Managing Agencies are Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner & Co. who mobilised capital, set up joint-stock companies and managed them.

Where Did the Workers Come From?

As the factories started expanding, the demand for workers increased. Most of the workers came from the neighbouring districts in search of work. Over 50 per cent workers in the Bombay cotton industries in 1911 came from the neighbouring district of Ratnagiri, while the mills of Kanpur got most of their textile hands from the villages within the district of Kanpur. As news of

employment spread, workers travelled great distances in the hope of work in the mills.

Even after the demand for workers increased, getting jobs was difficult. The numbers seeking work were always more than the jobs available. Most of the industrialists employed a jobber, which he brought from his village, to recruit new workers. Industrialists helped the jobber to settle down and provided them with money in need.

The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

European Managing Agencies were interested in certain kinds of products such as tea and coffee. They established tea and coffee plantations and invested in mining, indigo and jute. These products are used only for export purposes. In the late nineteenth century, Indian businessmen began setting up industries. The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to China. The pattern of industrialisation was affected by a series of changes. When the swadeshi movement gained support, nationalists boycotted foreign cloth. From 1906, Indian yarn exports to China declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese mills flooded the Chinese market. Till the end of the First World War, industrial growth was slow. The war completely changed the whole scenario and Indian mills took advantage of the situation. They had a vast market to supply war needs: jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, tents and leather boots, horse and mule saddles and a host of other items. The industrial production boomed over the years and after the war, Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market.

Small-scale Industries Predominate

Small-scale industries continued to predominate the rest of the country. Only a small proportion of the total industrial labour force worked in registered factories. The rest worked in small workshops and household units. Handicrafts production expanded in the twentieth century. In the twentieth century, handloom cloth production expanded. It happened because of technological changes as they started adopting new technology which helped them improve production without excessively pushing up costs.

Certain groups of weavers were in a better position than others to survive the competition with mill industries. Some of the weavers produced coarse cloth while others wove finer varieties. Weavers and other craftspeople who continued to expand production through the twentieth century did not necessarily prosper. They worked for long hours including all the women and children. But they were not simply remnants of past times in the age of factories. Their life and labour were integral to the process of industrialisation.

Market for Goods

When new products are produced advertisements helped people to make products appear desirable and necessary. They tried to shape the minds of people and create new needs. Today we are surrounded by advertisements which appear in newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street walls, television screens. From the very beginning of the industrial age, advertisements played a part in expanding the markets for products, and in shaping new consumer culture.

Manchester industrialists put labels on the cloth bundles, to mark the quality. When buyers saw ‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’ written in bold on the label, they were expected to feel confident about buying the cloth. 

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★How do organism reproduce ★

 8: How Do Organisms Reproduce

Introduction

*Reproduction

Reproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some multicellular organisms and a few plants.

Sexual reproduction

The mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female. They produce sex cells or gametes which fuse to form a new organism.

Asexual Reproduction

1.Fission

Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms.

When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission (e.g. paramecium).

When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple fission (e.g. Plasmodium).

Planes of fission may be different for different organisms.

2.Budding

Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the parent’s body, which gives rise to a new individual.

Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).

3..Regeneration and fragmentation

Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g. lizard).

Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each piece grows into a whole new organism.

E.g. Planaria, Hydra

4.Spore formation

Organisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from their fruiting body.

5.Vegetative propagation

This is a type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.

The vegetative part of the plant, like leaves, stem, roots, gives rise to a new plant.

Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural.

Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric, ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc.

Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.

Sexual Reproduction

Types of Cell division

Two types of cell division seen in eukaryotic organisms:

1.Mitosis

Takes place in somatic cells

Maintains the chromosome number

Produces two, diploid daughter cells

Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell replacement and regeneration

2.Mieosis

Takes place in sex cells

Reduces the number of chromosomes by half

Produces four haploid daughter cells

Required for sexual reproduction, i.e gamete formation

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The Reproductive System

To know more about Human Reproductive System, visit here.

1.Male reproductive system

The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

They produce the male sex cells called sperms and also produce male sex hormone testosterone.

★Male main reproductive organs

The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as the structural and functional unit.

Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and mature in the epididymis.

Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete hormone testosterone.

Male accessory reproductive organs

Several accessory reproductive organs that aid in the reproductive process.

The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of reproductive system which make semen and nourish the sperms.

Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ.

Male Ducts

In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.

A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to urethra.

Urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.

2.Female reproductive system

The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts and the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.

★Female main reproductive organ

The main reproductive organ in a female is a pair of ovaries.

They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones called estrogen and progesterone.

Female accessory reproductive organ

Uterus and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.

The uterus is the site of fetal development and vagina receives sperms from the male.

★Menstrual Cycle

Menstruation

Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal from the body when fertilization does not happen.

During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down while the ovum is being removed from the body.

Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone, all have their roles in menstruation.

In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.

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🧐Fertilization

Human reproduction

Humans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms and the female produces eggs. When the sperm fuses with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives rise to a new progeny.

★ some important method to preserve pregnancy

1.Contraceptive Methods

Reproductive health

Reproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.

Contraceptives

Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.

Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods, surgical methods, etc.

Coitus Interruptus

It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male ejaculates inside the female reproductive tracts.

Rhythm Method

Another unreliable method of contraception where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile and the chances of fertilization are very high.

Condoms

One of the most effective methods of contraception.

A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy.

It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.

Diaphragms

Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.

They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.

Contraceptive Pills

Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.

They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the ovaries.

Emergency Pill

Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy.

They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent a successful implantation even if the egg gets fertilized.

IUD

IUD stands for Intrauterine Device.

They can be used for a couple of years.

It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and preventing successful implantation of the zygote.

Sterilization

Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile.

This can be done in both males and females.

In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal ligation.

To know more about Contraceptive Methods, visit here.

Reproduction in Plants

1.Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Sexual reproduction in plants happens through flowers.

Essential whorls of the flowers such as androecium and the gynoecium help in the sexual reproduction of plants.

Non-essential parts of flowers

The typical structure of flower contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.

Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.

Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they are green in colour.

Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.

Essential whorls of flowers

Androecium and gynoecium are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a flower.

Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules which are female gametes.

Bisexual flowers contain both the whorls while unisexual flowers contain either of them.

Each individual member of androecium is called a stamen and consists of anther and filament.

Anther produces haploid pollen grains.

Each individual member of gynoecium is called pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary.

Pollination

The process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a flower is known as pollination.

It is required for fertilization.

Pollination has two types, self-pollination (autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy).

In self-pollination, transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant.

In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another flower.

Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects, birds, bats, etc.

Fertilization

Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.

In flowering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and generate two male nuclei.

Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei.

One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm.

Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to the embryo and future plant.

After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away.

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